Rosh Hashanah falls on the first day of the Hebrew month Tishrei (although outside Israel it is celebrated for two days). The Torah calls Rosh Hashanah Yom HaZikkaron (the day of remembrance) or Yom Teruah (the day of the sounding of the shofar).
And the Eternal One spoke unto Moses, saying: Speak unto the children of Israel, saying: In the seventh month, in the first day of the month, shall be a solemn rest unto you, a memorial proclaimed with the blast of horns, a holy convocation. You shall do no manner of servile work; and you shall bring an offering made by fire unto the Eternal One. (Leviticus 23:23-25)
Rabbinic Traditions
According to Rabbinic tradition, Rosh Hashanah is the beginning of the new year. Rosh Hashanah is set aside as the day to begin calculating the years of the Shemitah (or Sabbatical) year and the Yovel (or Jubilee) year.
On the first of Tishri is new year for years, for release and jubilee years, for plantation [of trees] and for [tithe of] vegetables. (Rosh Hashanah 2a)1
Rosh Hashanah is the day that God created man and it is a time to begin introspection, looking back at the mistakes of the past year and planning the changes to make in the new year. Work is forbidden on Rosh Hashanah and most of the day is spent in synagogue. The regular daily prayers are expanded and a special siddur (prayer book) – called the Machzor – is used during the High Holy Days. The religious services for the holiday focus on the concept of the sovereignty of God.
The Mishnah references Rosh Hashanah as being one of four seasons of Divine judgment. “At four seasons [Divine] judgment is passed on the world…At New Year all creatures pass before Him like children of Maron [one by one], as it says, ‘He that fashions the heart of them all, that considers all their doings’ [Psalm 33:15].” (Rosh Hashanah 16a)1
Rosh Hashanah was declared a day of Divine judgment for two reasons. First, on this day the creation of the world was completed. It was the intention of God that the world would be ruled by the trait of strict justice. Second, it was on this day that Adam was judged. After Adam repented, God forgave him.2
The Tanakh in Numbers 29:1 refers to the holiday as Yom Teruah (the day of the sounding of the shofar) and in Leviticus 23:24 as Tzikron Teruah (the memorial of the sounding of the shofar).
The shofar is a horn (typically a ram’s horn) that was used by the Children of Israel to announce the holidays, beginning of a new month, start of Shabbat, and in times of war. After the destruction of the Temple, the shofar became used mainly during the High Holy Days, and (in Israel) to announce the beginning of Shabbat.
According to Rambam, when one hears the shofar on Rosh Hashanah it seems to say: “Wake up you sleepy ones from your sleep and you who slumber, arise. Inspect your deeds, repent, remember your Creator. Those who forget the truth in the vanities of time and throughout the entire year, devote their energies to vanity and emptiness which will not benefit or save: Look to your souls. Improve your ways and your deeds and let every one of you abandon his evil path and thoughts.” (Teshuva 3:4)3
Hearing the shofar on Rosh Hashanah is a positive mitzvah as it is stated in Numbers 29:1: “And in the seventh month, on the first day of the month, you shall have a holy convocation: you shall do no manner of servile work; it is a day of blowing the horn unto you.” Even though it is not explicitly mentioned in the Torah that the sounding of the shofar must occur on Rosh Hashanah it was determined to be a mitzvah by the Sages. The Torah states in Leviticus (25:9) that the yovel (jubilee) year must be proclaimed by the sounding of the shofar. The Sages go on to say that “just as the ‘sounding’ required by the Torah in the yovel requires a shofar, so, too, the ‘sounding’ on Rosh HaShanah requires a shofar.” (Shofar, Sukkah, and Lulav 1:1)4
According to the Shulkhan Arukh (586:1), the shofar that is to be used for the mitzvah concerning Rosh Hashanah must be a ram’s horn and must be bent or curved. A cow’s horn is invalid as are the horns of most other animals since they are solid bone. The horns of non-kosher animals are also not to be used for the shofar.
“The time for blowing the Shofer is during the day and not during the night. The Mitzvah is after sunrise. But if you blew the Shofer at daybreak, you fulfill the commandment. If you hear part of the blowing of the Shofer before daybreak and part after daybreak, you do not fulfill the commandment. … If Rosh Hashanah falls out on Shabbat, we do not blow the Shofer.” (Shulkhan Arukh 588:1,5)5
The Shulkhan Aruckh (589:3,4,6,7) lists three categories of people who may blow the shofar and fulfill the mitzvah for sounding the shofar on Rosh Hashanah.5
1. A hermaphrodite may sound the shofar for other hermaphrodites.
2. Women are exempt for sounding the shofar (since it is a time-bound mitzvah) however women are permitted to sound the shofar.
3. A person may sound the shofar for a friend as long as the person is not deriving any benefit from his friend.
Our Rabbis taught that all males have the obligation to sound the shofar. “Priests, Levites and lay Israelites, proselytes and emancipated slaves, tumtum [one of uncertain gender] and androgynus [hermaphrodite], and one who is half slave and half free [a slave of two masters where one master has released him]. A tumtum cannot perform [a religious duty] either for a fellow-tumtum or for anyone else. An androgynus can perform [a religious duty] for a fellow-androgynus but nor for anyone else. One who is half a slave and half free can perform [a religious duty] neither for one in the same condition nor for anyone else”.1
According to Rambam nine shofar blasts are to be sounded on Rosh Hashanah. This number is based upon the Torah’s mention of the word teruah – sounding the shofar – three times in association with the yovel year and Rosh Hashana. Every teruah is to be preceded by a single long blast (tekiah) and followed by a single long blast. According to the oral tradition “all the soundings of the shofar of the seventh month are a single entity.” (Shofar, Sukkah, and Lulav 3:1)4
For those in the Diaspora, Rosh Hashanah is celebrated for two days. In this case, the shofar is sounded on the second day just as it was sounded on the first day. (Shofar, Sukkah, and Lulav 3:1) Rambam teaches that every male is obligated to hear the sounding of the shofar – Priests, Levites, Israelites, Converts, freed slaves, half-slaves, the tumtum, and the androgynous. Women, slaves, and minors are free from this obligation. (Shofar, Sukkah, and Lulav 2:1) “The congregation is obligated to hear the shofar blasts together with the order of blessings” of the Amidah and the intermediate blessings. (Shofar, Sukkah, and Lulav 3:7-8)4
In the commonly accepted custom for communal services on Rosh Hashanah the blowing of the shofar takes place after the Torah is read and returned to its place. The congregation will be seated and one person will stand to recite the blessing:
“Praised are You, Lord our God, King of the universe who sanctified us with His commandments, commanding us to hear the sound of the shofar.”6
The Shehecheyanu is then recited by the same person:
“Praise are You, Lord our God, King of the universe who granted us life, who sustained us, and who enabled us to reach this day.” After which the 30 shofar blasts are sounded.6
Kaddish is then recited and the musaf service follows during which the final shofar blasts are sounded.6
A popular observance during this holiday is eating apples dipped in honey, a symbol of our wish for a sweet new year. Another popular practice of the holiday is Tashlikh (“casting off”). We walk to flowing water, such as a creek or river, on the afternoon of the first day and empty our pockets into the river (generally this means casting bread into the water), symbolically casting off our sins. The common greeting at this time is L’shanah tovah (“for a good year”). This is a shortening of “L’shanah tovah tikatev v’taihatem” (or to women, “L’shanah tovah tikatevi v’taihatemi”), which means “May you be inscribed and sealed for a good year.”
Candles are lit and blessings are said on the first night and the second night in order to help usher in the Holy Day. Kiddush (blessing over wine/grape juice) is said as well as the blessing over the challah (braided bread). Slices of the challah and apple slices are dipped in honey, representing sweetness and hope for the new year.
Selichot is the first service of Rosh Hashanah that takes place the Saturday before Rosh Hashanah. Prayers and requests for forgiveness, said throughout the Ten Days of Awe, are heard for the first time. This service usually takes place at or near midnight.
Services are held during both days of Rosh Hashanah. A special siddur (prayer book), called the Machzor, is used during these services. Special prayers and pleas for forgiveness are recited in addition to the regular weekday and Shabbos prayers. The shofar (typically a ram’s horn) is sounded during the services (except on Shabbos).
Tashlich, a special service, is typically held on the first day of Rosh Hashanah. This service is meant to represent a casting away of sins. The community gathers are a body of water (typically a stream or creek) containing fish where people empty their pockets of crumbs and recite blessings.
Karaite Traditions
The first day of the seventh month is a sacred day when a special sacrifice was offered when the Temple still stood. The word teru’ah (תרועה) can mean shouting, war-cry, joyous shouting, or a trumpet blast. Due to the fact that we no longer have the Temple Karaite Jews do not use any kind of instruments – such as a shofar – during the celebration of Yom HaTeruah.7
The “trumpeting” (תרועה) expressed in the passages pertaining to Yom HaTeruah are not indicating that the “trumpeting” (תרועה) is done by way of instruments but rather by the voices of the people.
When the Tanakh mentions “trumpeting” (תרועה) along with trumpets and the sounds of the horn (as in Tehillim 47:6 and 98:6) it indicates trumpeting by the voice of the people. Unlike Rabbinic Judaism, Karaite Judaism does not consider Yom HaTeruah to be the birthday of the world, the new year, or a day when the deeds of mankind are brought up for review.8
All work except that which is needed to prepare food is prohibited during Yom HaTeruah. In addition special services are held at the Beit HaKnesset (synagogue).
Karaite customs on this day include eating a vegetable at mealtime that has the same coloring as myrtle leaves over which a blessing is made. There are also special additions made to the prayer services during Yom HaTeruah services.7
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1I. Epstein. Soncino Babylonian Talmud: Rosh Hashanah. London: Soncino Press, 1949. [http://halakhah.com/pdf/moed/Rosh_HaShanah.pdf]
2Eliyahu Kitov. Day of Judgment. Chabad. Web. 18 September 2011. [http://www.chabad.org/holidays/JewishNewYear/template_cdo/aid/4399/jewish/Day-of-Judgment.htm]
3Eliyahu Touger (ed.). Mishneh Torah: Teshuva. New York: Moznaim Publishers, 1990. [http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/911887/jewish/Teshuvah.htm]
4Eliyahu Touger (ed.). Mishneh Torah: Shofar, Sukkah, V’Lulav. New York: Moznaim Publishers, 1998. [http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/946093/jewish/Shofar-Sukkah-vLulav.htm]
5Jay Dinovitser. Free English Translation of the Shulchan Aruch: Jewish Code of Law. ShulchanArach. Web. 18 September 2011. [http://shulchanarach.com/]
6Jules Harlow. Mahzor for Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1978.
7al-Qirqisani Center. An Introduction to Karaite Judaism: History, Theology, Practice, and Custom. Troy, NY: al-Qirqisani Center for the Promotion of Karaite Studies, 2003.
8Leon Nemoy (ed). Karaite Anthology: Excerpts from the Early Literature. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1980.